An Islamic society is not a one-party communist totalitarian society where differences and individuality are expunged. Human beings differ in their colours, languages, tastes, interests and intellectual capacity. In themselves these differences are not a problem unless they are used to cause dissent and division. Allah ta’ala clearly says in the Qur’an:

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلنَّاسُ إِنَّا خَلَقْنَـٰكُم مِّن ذَكَرٍۢ وَأُنثَىٰ وَجَعَلْنَـٰكُمْ شُعُوبًۭا وَقَبَآئِلَ لِتَعَارَفُوٓا۟ ۚ إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِندَ ٱللَّهِ أَتْقَىٰكُمْ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلِيمٌ خَبِيرٌۭ

O humanity! Indeed, We created you from a male and a female, and made you into peoples (شُعُوب) and tribes (قَبائِل) so that you may ˹get to˺ know one another. Surely the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous among you. Allah is truly All-Knowing, All-Aware.[1]

We need to distinguish between two Arabic words in relation to Islamic unity. They are Ikhtilaf (difference) and Iftiraq (division) which are both found in the Qur’an and Sunnah.

Allah ta’ala says,

وَلَا تَكُونُوا۟ كَٱلَّذِينَ تَفَرَّقُوا۟ وَٱخْتَلَفُوا۟ مِنۢ بَعْدِ مَا جَآءَهُمُ ٱلْبَيِّنَـٰتُ ۚ وَأُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ لَهُمْ عَذَابٌ عَظِيمٌۭ

“And do not be like those who split (تَفَرَّقُوا) ˹into sects˺ and differed (اِخْتَلَفُوا) after clear proofs had come to them. It is they who will suffer a tremendous punishment.”[2]

Ibn Ashur (d.1973) comments on this splitting and division (الاِفْتِراق):

وفِيهِ إشارَةٌ إلى أنَّ الِاخْتِلافَ المَذْمُومَ والَّذِي يُؤَدِّي إلى الِافْتِراقِ، وهو الِاخْتِلافُ في أُصُولِ الدِّيانَةِ الَّذِي يُفْضِي إلى تَكْفِيرِ بَعْضِ الأُمَّةِ بَعْضًا، أوْ تَفْسِيقِهِ، دُونَ الِاخْتِلافِ في الفُرُوعِ المَبْنِيَّةِ عَلى اخْتِلافِ مَصالِحِ الأُمَّةِ في الأقْطارِ والأعْصارِ، وهو المُعَبِّرُ عَنْهُ بِالِاجْتِهادِ. ونَحْنُ إذا تَقَصَّيْنا تارِيخَ المَذاهِبِ الإسْلامِيَّةِ لا نَجِدُ افْتِراقًا نَشَأ بَيْنَ المُسْلِمِينَ إلّا عَنِ اخْتِلافٍ في العَقائِدِ والأُصُولِ، دُونَ الِاخْتِلافِ في الِاجْتِهادِ في فُرُوعِ الشَّرِيعَةِ.

“The reprehensible differences (الِاخْتِلاف) that leads to division (الاِفْتِراق) is the differences in the fundamentals of religion (usul ad-deen) that leads to some members of the ummah declaring others disbelievers (kafir) or transgressors (fasiq), unlike the differences in the branches (furu’) based on the differences in the interests of the ummah in different countries and eras, which is expressed by ijtihad. If we examine the history of Islamic Schools of Thought (madhāhib), we will not find any division that arose among Muslims except due to differences in ‘aqeeda and usul. We only find differences in ijtihad in the branches of Sharia.”[3]

The Prophet ﷺ said,

افْتَرَقَتِ الْيَهُودُ عَلَى إِحْدَى وَسَبْعِينَ فِرْقَةً فَوَاحِدَةٌ فِي الْجَنَّةِ وَسَبْعُونَ فِي النَّارِ وَافْتَرَقَتِ النَّصَارَى عَلَى ثِنْتَيْنِ وَسَبْعِينَ فِرْقَةً فَإِحْدَى وَسَبْعُونَ فِي النَّارِ وَوَاحِدَةٌ فِي الْجَنَّةِ وَالَّذِي نَفْسُ مُحَمَّدٍ بِيَدِهِ لَتَفْتَرِقَنَّ أُمَّتِي عَلَى ثَلاَثٍ وَسَبْعِينَ فِرْقَةً فَوَاحِدَةٌ فِي الْجَنَّةِ وَثِنْتَانِ وَسَبْعُونَ فِي النَّارِ ‏”‏ ‏.‏ قِيلَ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ مَنْ هُمْ قَالَ ‏”‏ الْجَمَاعَةُ

“The Jews split (اِفْتَرَقَت) into seventy-one sects, one of which will be in Paradise and seventy in Hell. The Christians split into seventy-two sects, seventy-one of which will be in Hell and one in Paradise. I swear by the One Whose Hand is the soul of Muhammad, my nation will split into seventy-three sects, one of which will be in Paradise and seventy-two in Hell.” It was said: “O Messenger of Allah, who are they?” He said: “The main body of the ummah (الْجَمَاعَةُ).”[4]

The concept of division (الاِفْتِراق) in the Qur’an often has a negative connotation, referring to divisions, sects, or discord that leads to people straying from the straight path. While the root of the word can also mean “to separate” or “to divide” in a neutral sense (as in the word furqan, meaning criterion or distinction), when used in contexts of human society and religion, it usually implies a fragmentation that is discouraged by Allah. 

Ibn ‘Abbas said: “The Aws and the Khazraj had a feud in the pre-Islamic period. One day, they mentioned to each other what had happened in that period and this led them to brandish their swords at each other. Upon being informed of what was happening, the Messenger of Allah ﷺ went to them and these verses were revealed:

وَكَيْفَ تَكْفُرُونَ وَأَنتُمْ تُتْلَىٰ عَلَيْكُمْ ءَايَـٰتُ ٱللَّهِ وَفِيكُمْ رَسُولُهُۥ ۗ وَمَن يَعْتَصِم بِٱللَّهِ فَقَدْ هُدِىَ إِلَىٰ صِرَٰطٍۢ مُّسْتَقِيمٍۢ

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ ٱتَّقُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ حَقَّ تُقَاتِهِۦ وَلَا تَمُوتُنَّ إِلَّا وَأَنتُم مُّسْلِمُونَ

وَٱعْتَصِمُوا۟ بِحَبْلِ ٱللَّهِ جَمِيعًۭا وَلَا تَفَرَّقُوا۟ ۚ وَٱذْكُرُوا۟ نِعْمَتَ ٱللَّهِ عَلَيْكُمْ إِذْ كُنتُمْ أَعْدَآءًۭ فَأَلَّفَ بَيْنَ قُلُوبِكُمْ فَأَصْبَحْتُم بِنِعْمَتِهِۦٓ إِخْوَٰنًۭا وَكُنتُمْ عَلَىٰ شَفَا حُفْرَةٍۢ مِّنَ ٱلنَّارِ فَأَنقَذَكُم مِّنْهَا ۗ كَذَٰلِكَ يُبَيِّنُ ٱللَّهُ لَكُمْ ءَايَـٰتِهِۦ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَهْتَدُونَ

How can you disbelieve when Allah’s revelations are recited to you and His Messenger is in your midst? Whoever holds firmly to Allah is surely guided to the Straight Path.

O believers! Be mindful of Allah in the way He deserves, and do not die except in ˹a state of full˺ submission ˹to Him˺.

And hold firmly together to the rope of Allah and do not be divided. Remember Allah’s favour upon you when you were enemies, then He united your hearts, so you—by His grace—became brothers. And you were at the brink of a fiery pit and He saved you from it. This is how Allah makes His revelations clear to you, so that you may be ˹rightly˺ guided.[5][6]

While Allah severely condemns this division which nearly led to fighting, they were not reprimanded for remaining in their respective tribes and clans. In fact the Aws and the Khazraj would compete with each other in the good deeds based on the command: فَٱسْتَبِقُوا۟ ٱلْخَيْرَٰتِ “So compete with one another in doing good.”[7]

Ibn Ishaq narrates, “Among the things that Allah did for His Messenger ﷺ was that these two tribes of the Ansar, the Aws and the Khazraj, would compete with the Messenger of Allah ﷺ like two stallions competing. The Aws would not do anything that would please the Messenger of Allah ﷺ except that the Khazraj would say: ‘By Allah, you will not lose any advantage over us by doing this in the eyes of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ and in Islam.’  He said: So they would not stop until they had done something similar. Whenever the Khazraj did something, the Aws would say the same.”[8]

Differences (الِاخْتِلاف) is a general term and in Islamic fiqh has a positive connotation meaning the legitimate differences of opinion that emerge among the ‘ulema when extracting Islamic rules through ijtihad as Ibn Ashur mentioned above.

Therefore, different provinces and states in an Islamic State are all fine, but division, fitna, separation and civil war are all unacceptable red-lines in the sharia. The Ummah must remain unified upon the Islamic ‘aqeeda and the agreed upon principles emanating from it. Al-Mawardi lists 10 duties and responsibilities on the caliph the first of which is:

  حِفْظُ الدِّينِ عَلَى أُصُولِهِ الْمُسْتَقِرَّةِ، وَمَا أَجْمَعَ عَلَيْهِ سَلَفُ الْأُمَّةِ

“Preserving the deen on its established principles (‘usul) and what the predecessors (salaf) of the ummah have consented upon (‘ijma).”[9]

Notes

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[1] Holy Qur’an, Surah Al-Hujurat, ayah 13

[2] Holy Qur’an, Surah Al-i-Iman, ayah 105

[3] https://tafsir.app/ibn-aashoor/3/104

[4] Sunan Ibn Majah 3992, https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah:3992

[5] Holy Qur’an, Surah Ali-‘Imran, ayaat 101-103

[6] Asbāb al-Nuzūl By: Alī ibn Ahmad al-Wāhidī translated by Mokrane Guezzou, 2008 Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, p.39

[7] Holy Qur’an, Surah al-Baqara, ayah 148

[8] Ibn Hisham, https://shamela.ws/book/23833/1010

[9] Al-Mawardi, Al-Ahkam as-Sultaniyah, https://shamela.ws/book/22881/35