- Islamic Society
- Obeying the ruler
- Loyalty to the ruler
- Advising the ruler
- The ruler’s selection of his officials
- Rule with justice
- Good administration
- The ruler needs good assistants
- Description of a competent ruler
- Good behavior and kindness to the subjects
- Disobeying the ruler when he orders sin
- Consultation (shura)
- Keeping secrets
- An audience with the ruler
- Qualities of a judge
- Notes
Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih (860–940CE) wrote an anthology of 25 books on adab called Al-‘Iqd al-Farid (The Unique Necklace), with each book named after a precious jewel which all together makes up the figurative necklace. Adab (أدب) means Islamic etiquette, but in earlier times its meaning included all that a well-informed person had to know in order to pass in society as a cultured and refined individual.[1]
In this article, a selection from ‘The Book of the Pearl on the Sultan’ (كِتاب اللُؤْلُؤَة في السُلْطان) is presented covering some of the adab related to Islamic government, and how the ruler and officials should behave. The sub-headings are not part of the original text.
Islamic Society
Ka’b al-Ahbar said,
مثل الإسلام والسلطان والناس: مثل الفسطاط والعمود والأوتاد. فالفسطاط الإسلام، والعمود السلطان، والأوتاد الناس. ولا يصلح بعضهم إلا ببعض
“Islam, the ruler, and the people are like a tent, a pole, and pegs. The tent is Islam, the pole is the ruler, and the pegs are the people. Each is useful only with the others.”
Obeying the ruler
Allah ta’ala says,
يا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا أَطِيعُوا اللَّهَ وَأَطِيعُوا الرَّسُولَ وَأُولِي الْأَمْرِ مِنْكُمْ
“O you who believe, obey Allah, obey the Messenger, and those in authority among you.”[2]
Abu Hurayra said, “When this verse was revealed, we were commanded to obey the rulers (imams); for obeying them is part of obeying Allah, and disobeying them is part of disobeying Allah.”[3]
Loyalty to the ruler
Khalid ibn Safwan said, “He who associates with the ruler (sultan), correcting and advising him, has more enemies than the one who associates with the ruler, deceiving and betraying him; for on advising the ruler, he invites upon himself the enmity and the envy of both the ruler’s enemy and the ruler’s friend, because the ruler’s friend competes with the adviser over the latter’s favorite position, and the ruler’s enemy hates him for giving advice.”[4]
Abu Sufyan’s and his wife’s advice to their son Mu’awiya when Umar appointed him governor
When Mu’awiya came back from Syria, of which Umar had appointed him governor (‘amil), he went to see his mother Hind. She said to him, “My son, rarely has a free woman given birth to one like you, and this man has appointed you governor; so, do what pleases him, whether you like it or not.” Then he went to see his father Abu Sufyan. He said to him, “My son, this group of Emigrants (muhajireen) have preceded us in adopting Islam and we came to it later; so, their precedence has raised them and our lateness has reduced our rank. We have become followers and they have become leaders. And now they have appointed you for a great task; so, do not disagree with them, for you are running toward an end that you have not reached; and even if you have reached it, you will breathe easily in it.”
Mu’awiya said, “I was amazed at their agreement on the idea, although their words were different.”[5]
Advising the ruler
Some people said, “He who is associated with the ruler should not withhold advice from him even if the ruler finds it annoying. However, his speech to him should be kind, not stupidly unthoughtful, so that he may inform him of his fault without saying it to his face. He should rather speak proverbially and tell him of the fault of others so that he may know his own fault.”[6]
When al-Ahnaf ibn Qays was consulted by Mu’awiya regarding his seeking the caliphate for Yazid. He was silent, so he was asked by Mu’awiya, “Why do you not speak?” He said, “If we tell you the truth, we incur your wrath; and if we lie to you, we incur Allah’s wrath. The wrath of the Amir ul-Mu’mineen is easier for us than Allah’s wrath.” Mu’awiya said to him, “You have spoken the truth.”[7]
The ruler’s selection of his officials
When Umar ibn Hubayra sent Muslim ibn Sa’id to Khurasan [as governor], he said to him, “I advise you to be watchful about three types of people.
First, your chamberlain (Haajib), for he is your face, the personage you use to meet people; if he does good deeds, then you are the good-doer, and if he does evil ones, then you are the evil-doer.
Second, he is the chief of police (Sahib Al-Shurta), for he is your whip and sword; wherever he uses them, it is you who does.
Third, the officials of honor (Ummal Al-Qadr)” He was asked, “And who are they?” He said, “They are the men you choose from every locality of your province to govern, for if they are right, then that is what you want, and if they make mistakes, then they are the mistaken ones and you are the one who is right.”[8]
Umar met with Abu Hurayra and asked him, “Don’t you want to be a ruler (‘amil)?” “No,” he replied. Umar retorted, “Someone who is better than you sought to be a ruler, I mean Yusuf (as) for he said,
قَالَ ٱجْعَلْنِى عَلَىٰ خَزَآئِنِ ٱلْأَرْضِ ۖ إِنِّى حَفِيظٌ عَلِيمٌۭ
‘Appoint me over the treasures of the land, for I am a good keeper and possessed of knowledge.’[9]”
Umar ibn al-Khattab was about to appoint a man to a post when the man anticipated him by asking for the appointment. Thereupon, Umar said to him, “By Allah, I intended to appoint you, but anyone who asks to be appointed should not be aided in that quest.”[10]
It was said to Abd Allah ibn al-Hasan, “So-and-So has been changed by his appointed post.” He remarked, “He who assumes an appointed post that he deems to be bigger than he is will change and adapt himself to it. But he who deems himself to be bigger than it will not change and will not adapt himself to it.”[11]
Note. If someone is qualified for a government post, and their intention is to look after the affairs of the people rather than their own affairs, then it is not prohibited to ask for a government position.
Rule with justice
The wise said, “Among the duties of a ruler is to be just in his seen deeds in order to preserve the well-being of his rule, and to be just in his own conscience in order to preserve the well-being of his religion. If his administration is corrupt, his ruling power is gone. All politics revolves around justice and fairness, and no rule can last without them, be it one of believers or of unbelievers; this is in addition to the organization of state affairs and placing them in their right places.
He who rules should let himself be judged by his subjects, and the subjects should let themselves be judged by the ruler. A ruler’s judgment of others should be akin to his judgment of himself, for rights are known only by him who knows their limits and their correct places. No person can be a ruler unless he was a subject earlier.”[12]
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan said to his sons, “Each one of you is eligible to this kingship but it is only good for him among you who has an unsheathed sword, readily spent wealth, and justice that can reassure hearts.”[13]
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz wrote to one of his governors suggesting to him to fortify his city. He wrote, “Fortify it with justice, and clear away injustice from its ways.”[14]
Sa’id ibn Suwayd gave a speech in Homs. He first praised Allah and lauded Him then he said, “O people, Islam has a well-fortified wall and a secure gate. Islam’s wall is truth and its gate is justice. Islam will remain invincible as long as its ruler is powerful. His power does not result from killing with the sword and lashing with the whip, but from judging in truth and implementing justice.”[15]
Good administration
Abdullah ibn Abbas wrote to al-Hasan ibn Ali when the people chose him to rule them [as caliph] after Ali (ra), “Prepare for war, fight your enemy, pay off the religiously suspect without impairing your own religiosity, and appoint men from the nobility to rule and you will win over their tribes.”[16]
Ja’far ibn Yahya[17] said, “Taxes (al-kharaj) are the pillar of the state. Nothing can make them more abundant than justice and nothing can render them less scant than injustice.”[18]
The wise said, “People follow their ruler in good and in evil.”
Abu Hazim al-A’raj said, “The ruler is a market. What sells is brought to him.”[19]
The ruler needs good assistants
The wise have said, “The king (malik) is useless without his ministers (wazirs) and helpers (mu’awineen); and the ministers and helpers are useless without affection and advice; and affection and advice are useless without good opinion and integrity. Furthermore, kings should not leave a beneficent man or an evil-doer without requital, for if they do, the beneficent man will become lax and the evil-doer will become daring; then matters will deteriorate and discretion will be rendered useless.”
They said, “If a ruler is good but his ministers (wazirs) are bad, his good will not reach the people and no one will be able to gain any benefit from him. This situation has been likened to a body of pure water in which a crocodile abides: no one can enter it, even if he were in need of it.”[20]
They said, “If a ruler is good but his ministers are bad, his good will not reach the people and no one will be able to gain any benefit from him. This situation has been likened to a body of pure water in which a crocodile abides: no one can enter it, even if he were in need of it.”[21]
Description of a competent ruler
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan said, “The most virtuous man is one who is humble when he is in a high rank, who restrains himself when he is powerful, and who is fair when he is strong.”[22]
Al-Mansur said to his son Abd Allah al-Mahdi, “Do not conclude a matter until you have pondered about it long and hard; for an intelligent man’s thinking is his mirror that shows him his good and bad qualities. Know too that only piety mends the ways of the caliph, only obedience reforms the ruler, and only justice reforms subjects. The people who most deserve pardon are those most capable of punishing; and the people with the least intelligence are those who wrong the people beneath them.”[23]
Umar ibn al-Khattab (ra) was the most resolute caliph. Aisha (ra) used to say when Umar was mentioned, “By Allah, he was in full control of affairs, and unique in himself; he always had at the ready people who could handle circumstances.”
Al-Mughira ibn Shu’ba said, “I have never seen anyone more resolute than Umar. By Allah, he had the virtue that would prevent him from deceiving and the brain that would prevent him from being deceived.”
And Umar said, “I am no impostor, and no impostor can deceive me.”[24]
Good behavior and kindness to the subjects
When Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz became caliph, he sent for Salim ibn Abd Allah and Muhammad ibn Ka’b and said to them, “Advise me.”
Salim said to him, “Consider people to be father, brother, and son to you; be reverent to your father, preserve your brother, and have mercy on your son.”
Muhammad ibn Ka’b said, “Love for people whatever you would love for yourself; likewise hate for them whatever you would hate for yourself; and know that you are not the first caliph who will die.”[25]
Marwan ibn al-Hakam’s advice to his son ‘Abd al-Aziz, when he appointed him as governor (waali) of Egypt
When Marwan ibn al-Hakam left Egypt for Syria, he appointed his son Abd al-Aziz as governor of Egypt and said to him as he bade him farewell, “Whenever you send a wise man as messenger, do not advise him.
My dear son, take account of your provincial governors: if you owe them any rightful thing in the morning, do not postpone giving it to them till the evening; if you owe them anything in the evening, do not postpone it till the morning. Give them their due on time, and you will earn their obedience.
Beware of lying to your subjects; if you do, they will not believe you when you tell the truth.
Consult your companions and the learned; if you are not clear about anything, write to me and I will give you my opinion, if Allah most high wills.
If you are angered by any one of your subjects, do not blame him in the heat of your anger and do not punish him until your anger subsides, for then you will act with a calm temper when the embers of your anger are extinguished; the person who first instituted imprisonment was a forbearing and patient man.
Furthermore, take account of those of noble descent, religious piety, and magnanimous manliness and let them be your friends and companions; elevate their positions with you above others without undue freedom or restraint. I say all this and leave you in the protection of Allah.”[26]
Ziyad asked his friends, “Who is the happiest of all people in his way of life?” “The Emir and his friends,” they answered. “No,” he objected, “for the pulpit fills the Emir with awe, and the sound of the bridle of the courier’s horses inspires him with fear. The happiest of people in his way of life is rather a man who owns a house that earns him regular rent and has a wife who agrees with him on frugal living; he does not deal with us and we do not deal with him, for if he deals with us and we with him, we will spoil his life in this world and the next.”[27]
Disobeying the ruler when he orders sin
Al-A’mash related on the authority of al-Sha’bi: Ziyad wrote to al-Hakam ibn Amr al-Ghifari, who was leading the summer raid, “The Amir ul-Mu’mineen Mu’awiya has written to me with orders to keep the yellow and white for him. So do not divide the gold and silver [of the booty] among the people, but you may divide everything else.” So he wrote back to the Caliph, “Before the message of the Amir ul-Mu’mineen, I find directions in the Message of Allah. I swear by Allah that if the heavens and the earth were patched together to confine a Allah-fearing servant, Allah would surely give him a way out.” Then he called the people and divided among them all the booty in his possession.[28]
Consultation (shura)
A wise man gave advice to another wise man, who accepted it and said to him, “You have said what a compassionate adviser should say, mixing sweet and bitter words, easy and difficult ones; your kindness manages to motivate what is otherwise quiet. I have understood your advice and accepted it, for its source has been one whose love, sincerity, and truthfulness are not in doubt. May you remain, Allah be praised, a clear way to good and a shining beacon.”[29]
Keeping secrets
Wise men have said, “Your own breast is safer for your secret than the breast of others.”
They also said, “Your secret is part of your blood.” They meant that, in divulging it, your blood might perhaps be spilled.”[30]
Al-Walid ibn Utba said to his father, “The Amir ul-Mu’mineen entrusted me with a secret. Shall I tell it to you?” He said, “No, my son. He who keeps a secret retains the choice but he who divulges it gives up the choice to others. So do not be an owned slave after having been an owner.”[31]
An audience with the ruler
It was said to Mu’awiya, “Your chamberlain (haajib) gives precedence to his acquaintances and permits them in before the notables.” He replied, “What is wrong with that? Acquaintance is useful even with a mordacious dog and a rapacious camel; how much more it is with an honorable man of generosity and religion.”[32]
Wise men have said, “No one who persistently waits at a ruler’s door, shedding his pride, tolerating rudeness, and suppressing anger can fail to reach his goal.”[33]
Ziyad[34] said to his chamberlain, “O ‘Ajlan, I have appointed you my chamberlain and discharged you of four duties:
first, the one who calls to Allah in prayer and prosperity, do not prevent him from entering for you have no power over him;
second, the night visitor, do not prevent him from entering, for what he brings is bad news because if it were good, he would not have brought it at that late hour;
third, the messenger from the borders with the enemy, for if he were one hour late, he would spoil one year’s work, so let him in even if I am in bed;
and fourth, the food servant, for food goes bad if it is reheated.”[35]
Qualities of a judge
Al-Sha’bi said, “I was sitting with Shurayh[36] when a woman entered and complained about her absent husband while weeping severely. I said to him, ‘May Allah reform your ways. I think she has been unfairly treated.’ ‘How do you know that?’ asked Shurayh. ‘Because of her weeping,’ I said. ‘Don’t do that,’ he responded, ‘Joseph’s brothers came to their father weeping in the evening and they had wronged him.’”
Al-Ash’ath ibn Qays[37] entered the court of Judge Shurayh. The latter said to him, “Welcome to our learned teacher and master,” and seated him beside him. As he was sitting with him, a man entered and complained about al-Ash’ath.
Whereupon, Shurayh said to al-Ash’ath, “Get up and sit as an adversary and speak to your friend.” “I would rather speak to him from where I am now sitting,” said al-Ash’ath. “You will get up or I will order someone to make you get up,” stressed Shurayh. Al-Ash’ath remonstrated, “How high you have risen, indeed!” Shurayh countered, “Has that ever caused you any harm?” “No,” al-Ash’ath said. “I see that you acknowledge Allah’s blessing when given to others,” Shurayh chided, “but you do not acknowledge it when given to yourself.”
Notes
[1] Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, ‘The Unique Necklace,’ translation of Al-‘Iqd al-Farid, Volume I, ‘The Center for Muslim Contribution to Civilization,’ Garnet Publishing, 2006, p.xiii; Arabic original: https://shamela.ws/book/23789/12
[2] Holy Qur’an, Surah an-Nisa’ ayah 59
[3] Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, Op.Cit., p.6
[4] Ibid, p.8
[5] Ibid
[6] Ibid, p.12
[7] Ibid, p.43
[8] Ibid, p.13
[9] Holy Qur’an, Surah Yusuf ayah 55
[10] Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, Op.Cit., p.61
[11] Ibid, p.60
[12] Ibid, p.16
[13] Ibid
[14] Ibid, p.22
[15] Ibid, p.19
[16] Ibid, p.18
[17] Wazir of Harun al-Rashid
[18] Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, Op.Cit., p.22
[19] Ibid, p.23
[20] Ibid
[21] Ibid, p.24
[22] Ibid, p.26
[23] Ibid, p.30
[24] Ibid, p.32
[25] Ibid, p.29
[26] Ibid, p.31
[27] Ibid, p.61
[28] Ibid, p.43
[29] Ibid, p.46
[30] Ibid, p.48
[31] Ibid, p.49
[32] Ibid, p.51
[33] Ibid
[34] Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan, governor of Iraq to Mu’awiya
[35] Ibn ‘Abd Rabbih, Op.Cit., p.52
[36] Chief Justice in Kufa
[37] al-Ash’ath ibn Qays (599–661CE) was a tribal chief of Kinda based in Kufa
Islamic Civilization 